Proselytism of Jaina Shrines in Post-Medieval Karnataka
By Hampa Nagarajaiah
Summary
"This paper by Prof. Hampa Nagarajaiah meticulously examines the appropriation and conversion of Jaina shrines into non-Jaina places of worship in post-medieval Karnataka and other southern regions, based on archaeological, epigraphical, and literary evidence. A) Historical Context & Methodology i) Conversion of religious sites followed shifts in royal patronage; changes in the king’s faith often resulted in mass conversions and repurposing of temples. ii) Jain relics, including epigraphs and sculptures, are frequently found embedded in Hindu temples, reservoirs, tanks, and walls across Karnataka, often with visible architectural continuity or mutilated Jina figures. iii) Examples include slabs with Jaina inscriptions used as steps, ceilings, or pillars in non-Jaina structures. B) Geographical Survey of Converted Sites in Karnataka i) Bellary: Temples at Kuditini, Bagali, Holagundi, and Kurugod originally Jaina; now dedicated to Somanatha, Virabhadra, and others. Epigraphs and architectural features reveal Jaina origin. ii) Belgaum, Bidar, Bijapur: Jain temples at Kalholi, Gorata, and Basavana Bagevadi converted into Linga, Mahadeva, and Anjaneya shrines. Inscriptions confirm Jain origins. iii) Dharwar, Davangere, Chamarajanagar, Gadag: Multiple examples of Jain basadis turned into Hindu temples with Jina figures erased or retained. iv) Gulbarga: Temples at Tengali and Jevargi adapted into Panduranga and Hanuman temples; remnants of Jina icons still exist. v) Hassan: Numerous converted temples including Virupaksha and Bhutesvara temples. Architectural elements (Jina seals, door frames) affirm earlier Jaina status. vi) Haveri, Mandya, Mysore, Shimoga: Extensive conversions recorded. Notable cases include Hatna (Parsvanatha replaced by Virabhadra), Melukote (Celuvardya converted under Hoysala king Bittideva), and Talkad. C) Literary and Epigraphic Evidence i) Brahmasiva (c. 1175 CE) and Devacandra document large-scale destruction and appropriation of Jaina shrines, including by Ramanujacharya and Sankaracharya at Kolhapur, Puligere, Sringeri, and Melukote. ii) Devacandra cites 38 specific cases of Jaina temples repurposed by Hindus and Muslims (e.g., at Chandradrona hill, Delhi mosque conversions). D) Patterns of Conversion i) Most frequent transformations are into Hanuman (Anjaneya), Virabhadra, and Ramesvara temples. ii) Sometimes, Jina idols were left intact, partially preserved, or submerged in ponds (e.g., Suparsva image at Tippuru, Mandya). iii) Preservation of architectural elements like manastambhas and carved Jina images suggest non-hostile intent in some cases. E) Clarifications and Caveats i) Not all conversions were acts of religious hostility; natural calamities and abandonment led to some appropriations. ii) Many conversions involved reuse and restoration efforts by locals who sought to preserve the structure, albeit under a new religious identity. \
Conclusion
The article establishes that the widespread appropriation of Jaina shrines across Karnataka and parts of South India was a complex and multifaceted process, driven by shifts in royal patronage, sectarian conflicts, religious fervor, and sometimes pragmatic reuse of abandoned structures. While many Jaina temples were converted into Hindu shrines—primarily Anjaneya, Virabhadra, and Ramesvara temples—epigraphs, sculptures, and architectural remnants reveal their Jaina origins. The study cautions against viewing all conversions as acts of hostility, acknowledging the roles of neglect, natural decay, and local efforts to preserve ancient structures. Overall, the article calls for nuanced understanding backed by systematic archaeological and literary investigation.