The Jaina Architectural Forms at Mathura in India

Summary

"This scholarly article by Dr. Ann W. Norton investigates the development and transformation of Jain architectural symbolism in Mathura during the late Śuṅga and Kuṣāṇa periods (circa 1st–3rd century C.E.), focusing particularly on the Jain stūpa, āyāgapaṭas, caturmukha images, and samavasaraṇa depictions. Core Highlights and Observations 1. Mathura as a Religious and Artistic Hub i) Mathura was a significant religious center where Jainism and Buddhism developed distinct artistic identities from a shared visual and symbolic matrix. ii) Despite Buddhist stūpas predating Jain ones by centuries, Jain artifacts such as plaques confirm stūpa worship among Jains in this early period. 2. The Āyāgapaṭas (Tablets of Homage) i) Unique to Jainism, āyāgapaṭas were votive stone tablets donated mainly by laypersons. ii) U.P. Shah theorized that these may represent śilapaṭas placed beneath sacred trees (caitya-vṛkṣas), often forming the ritual and symbolic center of Jain samavasaraṇas. iii) These tablets included early representations of Jina shrines, wells, and architectural motifs integrated into a larger cosmological design. 3. Symbolism and Proto-Samavasaraṇa Imagery i) Many āyāgapaṭas show circular mandala-like forms with concentric layers and auspicious symbols (aṣṭamaṅgalas), reflecting early three-dimensional cosmological interpretations. ii) These forms prefigure the more developed samavasaraṇa depictions and reveal a gradual replacement of the stūpa as the central religious symbol in Jainism. 4. Samavasaraṇa Development and Sectarian Perspectives i) Dr. Norton challenges U.P. Shah's claim that no samavasaraṇa depictions appear in Mathura āyāgapaṭas, aligning instead with Padmanabh Jaini’s view that such plaques reflect samavasaraṇa imagery. ii) Digambara and Śvetāmbara textual traditions describe the samavasaraṇa differently, and this article analyzes both. iii) Figures 4–7 illustrate idealized plans and sectional diagrams of both sectarian forms. iv) The Digambara model emphasizes concentric rising levels with four manastambhas and a central gandhakūṭi. v) Śvetāmbara forms use decorative leafy arches and colored elements like emerald leaves. 5. Caturmukha and Manastambha Motifs i) The caturmukha (four-faced) image of the Jina and the manastambha (pillar of humility) become architectural expressions of core Jain values. ii) These forms were already present in early Kuṣāṇa material from Mathura, including multi-faced Jina sculptures and columns, possibly representing manastambhas. 6. Shared Visual Language with Buddhism i) Despite theological distinctions, Jain and Buddhist monuments shared elements like vedikās, toranas, yakṣī figures, and wheel symbolism. ii) Jain stūpa forms, such as the Kankāli mound example, may depict cakravartin imagery through eight-spoked wheels. 7. Architectural Legacy and Continuity i) Later Jain temples and shrines across India, especially in Mount Abu, Satrunjaya, and Bangalore, continue these forms: ii) Reproduced samavasaraṇas in shrine ceilings (e.g., Vimala Vasahi). iii) Life-size walk-in samavasaraṇa models in Śvetāmbara and Digambara contexts (e.g., Satrunjaya and Lucknow Museum). iv) Placement of manastambhas at temple entrances symbolizes humility and continuity of early architectural paradigms.\