Jaina Architecture in Eastern India

Summary

"This article explores the historical, archaeological, and iconographic dimensions of Jaina architecture in Eastern India—including Bengal (with Bangladesh), Bihar, parts of Uttar Pradesh, and Odisha. Despite Jainism’s early and deep impact in this region, comprehensive scholarly investigation remains lacking. Dr. Tiwary emphasizes the need for expanded archaeological work and contextual analysis to fill these gaps. Key Points 1. Historical Roots and Scholarly Gaps i) Jain cultural influence in Eastern India dates to Lord Pārśva’s era and early Kasi kingdom (Varanasi). ii) Though scholars like C.J. Shah, U. Thakur, K.C. Jain, and B.K. Tiwary have contributed studies, an integrated historical and archaeological account is still incomplete. 2. Archaeological and Epigraphic Evidence i) Since 1957, the Archaeological Survey of India has documented numerous monuments, but full results are unpublished. ii) Important contributions by scholars (e.g., Hiralal Jain, P.C. Nahar, Jinavijayaji, B.C. Bhattacharya, A. Ghosh) remain partial. iii) Jain epigraphs and āyāgapaṭas record temple constructions, donors (kings, queens, laypersons), and iconographic details across 1st–12th centuries CE. 3. Evolution of Jaina Iconography i) Pre-Mahāvīra Idol Worship: Archaeological finds of Jain statues (~300 BCE) indicate early iconographic practices. ii) Kuṣāṇa Period: Three styles emerged—sculptural panels, worship images, and āyāgapaṭa-centered icons. Yakṣa figures appeared alongside Jinas. iii) Gupta Period: Addition of trilinear umbrellas, dharmacakra flanked by bulls or deer, and emergence of navagraha motifs (initially 8, excluding Ketu). iv) Post-8th Century: Eastern India favored flanking planets beside Jinas, while Western India placed them on pedestals. 12th-century iconography included Jina mothers with children. v) Nalanda became a hub for casting metal Jina images, and wooden sculptures were produced during the Pāla period. 4. Temple Architecture i) Literary sources indicate widespread temple presence in Eastern India, but only few physical remains survive, notably in Pāṭaliputra. ii) Among architectural styles—Nagara, Vesara, Drāviḍa, Kalinga—none are comprehensively represented in surviving structures of Eastern India. iii) Best examples of temple architecture date post-11th century CE. 5. Stūpa Traditions i) Jain stūpas, commemorative mounds built at nirvāṇa or funeral sites, are attested from 10th century BCE to early Gupta era. ii) Texts (e.g., Jambūdvīpa Prajñapti, Aupapātika Sūtra, Āvaśyaka Niryukti) describe stūpas at Kailāśa (for Ṛṣabha), Campānagarī (Pūrṇabhadra caitya), Vaiśālī (for Munisuvrata), and Mathurā (500+ stūpas in Mughal times, as per Jambūsāmi Carita).\