Concept of Dravya (Substance) in Jain Philosophy

Summary

In this paper Dr Veer Sagar Jain explores the pivotal role of dravya (substance) in Jain metaphysics. He begins by explaining that, according to Jain cosmology, the universe (loka) is an amalgam of infinite substances. To understand the cosmos or the supreme soul (Jinendradeva) one must first grasp the nature of substance. Drawing on scriptures like Nemicandra’s Dravyasaṅgraha and Kundakunda’s writings, the author explains that knowledge of substance, its attributes and its modes helps destroy delusion and leads to correct knowledge. The article notes that dravya literally denotes what is real (sat) and therefore possesses origination, destruction and permanence. Each entity continuously undergoes these three conditions: changing into new forms, shedding its previous state and continuing to exist. A substance also always has attributes (guṇa) and modes (paryāya). Jain āchāryas like Umāsvāmī are cited for the assertion that reality is defined by its inherent attributes and modes. Living beings possess attributes like knowledge, intuition and happiness, while matter (pudgala) has form, taste, smell and touch. Jain texts classify dravyas into six broad categories: jīva (living beings), pudgala (matter), dharma (principle of motion), adharma (principle of rest), ākāśa (space) and kāla (time). The author explains that most world philosophies stress monism or advaitavāda, whereas Jainism propounds duālity between sentient and insentient substances. Jīva is defined as an entity with consciousness and is described through nine characteristics, including jīvatva (life), upayogamaya (manifestation of consciousness), amūrtika (non‑corporeality), kartā (agency), svadeha‑parimāṇa (size according to its body), bhoktā (enjoyer), saṃsārastha (existing in the cosmos), siddha (pure soul) and ūrdhvagamana (tendency to rise). These characteristics highlight the dual empirical and transcendental nature of the soul. Matter (pudgala) is described as anything that can be cognised by the senses. The term derives from pud (fusion) and gala (fission). Pudgala ranges from indivisible particles (paramāṇu) to aggregates (skandha) and can be gross‑gross (wood, stone), gross (fluids), gross‑subtle (shade, light), subtle‑gross (sound, heat, odour), subtle (karma particles) and subtle‑subtle (combinations of paramāṇus). The principles of motion and rest are separate substances that support movement and rest but do not themselves cause those states; the analogy of water supporting fish or rails supporting a train explains dharma, while the shade of a tree supporting a weary traveller illustrates adharma. Space (ākāśa) provides room for all substances and is conceptually divided into lokākāśa (the universe) and alokākāśa (empty space). Time (kāla) supports transformation and change; it is innumerable and omnipresent throughout space. Although many Śvetāmbara texts hesitate to call time a substance, its functional necessity leads some authors to list it among substances. The article emphasises that all six substances interact and support one another yet never lose their intrinsic nature. Each substance has infinite attributes, some generic (existence, functionality, persistence, measurability) and others specific (e.g., consciousness for jīva, form and taste for pudgala). Understanding the concept of dravya thus provides the foundation for comprehending Jain ontology and ethics.