Some Obscure Saiva Cults as known from Inscriptions

Summary

This extensive study surveys a range of little‑known Saiva sects, focusing on the Kapalika school and its related Mahavrata and Kalamukha traditions, using evidence from inscriptions and classical literature. The author notes that epigraphic references to Kapalikas are rare; the Chhatra Candesvara inscription from Nepal mentions Pasupata teachers wearing garlands of skulls, and the Tilakswada copper‑plate of King Bhoja Paramara describes an ascetic who had taken the mahavrata (great vow). The article argues that mahavratins are identical with Kapalikas because both are associated with the Siva‑sasana and Soma‑siddhanta traditions. Early literary references to Kapalikas occur in the Maitri Upanisad and Puranas, while dramatic works like the Mattavilasa and Malati‑Madhava portray Kapalika characters to highlight their eccentric practices. The article discusses descriptions of Kapalikas provided by Ramanuja and Yamunacarya, noting their distinctive accoutrements: they wore garlands of skulls, carried skull bowls and tridents, smeared themselves with ashes and wore bone ornaments. Because such practices were regarded as purificatory acts by heterodox ascetics, the Kapalikas were often viewed as transgressive. The article examines Mahavrata-dhara, explaining that medieval inscriptions from the reigns of Bhoja and Vira Pandya mention grants to temples supporting Mahavratins. Literature such as the Siva Purana, Katha-saritsagara and Nala-campu describes Mahavrata-dharas and sometimes equates them with Kalamukhas. The author cites Jagaddhara’s commentary equating the Kapalika-vrata with Mahavrata and notes that texts like the Kathasaritsagara describe Mahavratins as Kapalikas. This evidence leads to the conclusion that Kapalikas and Mahavratins were identical sects, though later writers often confused them with Kalamukhas due to shared practices. The article also discusses the Kalamukhas, a temple‑oriented Saiva sect, and examines how the Puranas and Smrtis sometimes lump Kapalikas, Kalamukhas and Mahavratins together. By collating epigraphic and literary data, the author reconstructs the beliefs and rituals of these obscure sects. Kapalikas practiced extreme asceticism, emphasised cremation‑ground rituals and carried skulls as implements. Mahavratins upheld a vow associated with the Pasupata tradition. The Kalamukhas, although less extreme, shared some rituals and were often conflated with Kapalikas. The article concludes that understanding these sects is essential for tracing the diversity of Saivism and its interactions with mainstream Hinduism.