Food and Drink in Medieval India

Summary

By analysing medieval chronicles, hagiographies and travellers’ accounts, K. S. Lal reconstructs the dietary habits and culinary culture of India between the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries. He begins by noting that food prices in this period were remarkably low, a fact emphasised by chroniclers like Ziyauddin Barani who compared market conditions under Alauddin Khalji and Firoz Shah Tughlaq. Wheat, rice and millets were staple cereals, with wheat commonly used in the north and rice in Bengal and the south. Pulses such as gram, lentils and beans supplemented cereals. Meat consumption varied by class and region: mutton, beef and game were eaten by Muslims and some Hindus, while cow slaughter was taboo in Hindu society. Barani records that cooked beef, bread and ghee could be purchased for a single jital, reflecting the affordability of meat in Delhi. Public bakeries and cook houses were common in cities, serving travellers and labourers, although orthodox Hindus shunned them. Lal surveys the variety of fruits, vegetables and condiments available, including mangoes, plantains, melons, cucumbers, onions, garlic, ginger, turmeric, pepper and cumin. Spices and aromatics were used liberally, and sugar, jaggery and honey sweetened dishes. Milk, curds and clarified butter (ghee) were dietary staples. Beverages ranged from water flavoured with sugar and spices to fermented drinks. Alcohol was consumed by some groups despite religious prohibitions; Persian sources mention wines and beers, while indigenous texts refer to sura, madhu and palm wine. The article also discusses ceremonial and festive foods, noting that feasts accompanied religious and social events, with elaborate preparations of rice, sweetmeats and meat dishes. The author highlights regional differences: Gujarati and Rajasthani sources praise bati and dal, while south Indian texts mention idli and dosa. He also notes the influence of Islamic cuisine, which introduced dishes such as biryani, pilau, kebabs and halwa. The spread of new crops and cooking techniques via trade and conquest enriched the culinary landscape. Lal concludes that medieval India possessed a diverse and sophisticated food culture that reflected its agricultural abundance and cosmopolitan exchanges.