Army and War in Mediaeval Ceylon
By Wilhelm Geiger
Summary
Drawing on Sinhalese chronicles and epigraphic sources, W. Geiger analyses the composition and tactics of the Sinhalese army in the mediaeval period. He notes that the army consisted of mercenaries and militia: mercenaries were often foreigners from the Tamil, Kerala and Kannada regions who were paid by the king, while the militia comprised free Sinhalese peasants compelled to serve in wartimeimage/file:///home/oai/share/563014_compressed-473-721.pdf. The terms yodha and bhāta refer to soldiers, and the chroniclers praise valour using the epithet sīra (“hero”). Geiger points out that archery was highly developed; bows and arrows were the principal weapons and chronicles often describe showers of arrows raining on the enemyimage/file:///home/oai/share/563014_compressed-473-721.pdf. Special arrows such as gokarṇaka were used against elephants and archers were organised into corps led by royal princes. The article discusses whether poisoned arrows were used and concludes that reports of poison arrows probably reflect foreign practices imported by Ramaṇa and Jāvaka invaders rather than native Sinhalese customimage/file:///home/oai/share/563014_compressed-473-721.pdf. Geiger also examines war elephants, cavalry, armour and the use of battle axes and notes that infantry carried swords, spears and shields. He analyses military organisation, describing how rulers maintained standing troops in fortresses and summoned militia when needed. Strongholds were defended by walls, moats and bastions; the chronicles describe sieges where defenders rained arrows and missiles on attackers and sallied out to set enemy siege engines on fire. The author concludes that the Sinhalese army relied on mercenaries for manpower but that indigenous tactics such as massed archery and fortified positions were decisive in defence. By comparing the chronicles with foreign accounts, he suggests that the Ceylonese developed a distinct martial tradition that blended indigenous practices with imported elements.
Conclusion
Geiger’s study shows that medieval Sinhalese armies were composed of both mercenaries from South India and native militia, and that bows and arrows formed their principal weapons. Chronicles emphasise archery, war elephants and fortified strongholds, while references to poisoned arrows likely reflect foreign influences rather than local practice. Although the monarchy depended on mercenaries for manpower, indigenous tactics—especially massed archery and the strategic use of forts—gave the Sinhalese a distinctive form of warfare. Understanding this blend of imported and native elements deepens our appreciation of Sri Lanka’s martial history.