Some Aspects of Socio‑Economic Life from the Jaina Canonical Literature

Summary

Adhir Chakravarti studies the early Jaina canonical texts to extract information about social and economic life in ancient India. He notes that Mahāvīra and the Buddha were contemporaries from north‑eastern India, but Jain canonical literature reflects a much wider geographical horizon, covering regions such as Lāḍha, Suhma, Vajjabhūmi and Sauvīradeśa. The texts were composed over centuries by different authors, so he emphasises the need for chronological and regional stratification when using them as historical sources. The article remarks that Jain tradition credits the first Tirthankara, Ṛṣabha, with introducing key elements of civilisation: fire, cooking, house‑building, agriculture, animal domestication, pottery, weaving, town‑building and market organisation. It also states that he taught the arts of the blacksmith and writing, signalling the dawn of the iron age and literacy. Chakravarti examines social organisation in these texts. The family (kula) is patriarchal, with several generations living together and inheritance passing through the male line. Gotra affiliation is important and many gotra names are the same as those in Brahmanical society. Succession is usually through the eldest son, although some exceptions appear. Marriage rules stress endogamy within the community. The article discusses social hierarchy, identifying various occupational groups and their status. Merchants, bankers and guild‑leaders enjoy high prestige; artisans and agriculturists hold respectable positions; while lowly callings such as wood‑cutters (kaṭṭihāraga), leaf‑gatherers (pattāhāraga) and grass‑cutters (tuṇāhāraga) roam forests and are viewed with disapproval because their work involves violence. The author draws attention to slavery in the texts. People become slaves through capture in war, sale or conditional gift. Examples include Candanā, who was captured during a war and sold several times before joining the Jain order, and slaves given as gifts. Slaves mainly perform domestic service; the texts mention different kinds of nurses, toilet attendants and bath attendants. Slave‑girls are vulnerable to sexual abuse, and emancipation of slaves is mentioned but details of the legal process remain unclear. Chakravarti emphasises that the socio‑economic information from the canonical literature is fragmentary and often anecdotal because the texts are primarily religious. Nonetheless, they provide valuable insights into family organisation, occupation, social hierarchy and slavery in early historic India.