Evolution of Jaina Sangha

Summary

In this continuation of a previous study, J.C. Sikdar examines the historical evolution of the Jain monastic community (Sangha) from the times of the twenty-third and twenty‑fourth Tīrthaṅkaras, Pārśvanātha and Mahāvīra, to the later post‑Mahāvīra period. The author notes that the early records of the Jaina Sanghas – such as anga texts, canonical commentaries and inscriptions – are fragmentary, but they enable a reconstruction of major stages in the development of the monastic orders. The earliest monks were aranyakas – forest dwellers who lived in parks or sub‑forests on the outskirts of towns. Such groups emphasised strict asceticism, meditation and wandering; they avoided settled life and subsisted on alms. Over time, a second type of monk evolved: the bhaikṣukas, or “house‑dwelling” ascetics. These monks resided in upāśrayas (monastic residences) and became more settled, reflecting changing social and economic conditions. Sikdar traces how these early groups gradually coalesced into organised gacchas (lineages), each associated with a specific teacher or region. For instance, the Kottiya Gaccha is said to have evolved from the Koriyaga Gaccha; the Candra Gaccha from Kottiya; and the Tapā Gaccha from Vāraṇā Gaccha. The author shows that such evolution was driven by doctrinal interpretations, regional affiliations and the need to regulate monastic discipline. The emergence of gacchas allowed monks to maintain distinct identities while acknowledging common principles. The paper also discusses the gradual divergence between Śvetāmbara and Digambara monastic practices and the formation of sub‑groups such as the Loṅkā Gaccha, which rejected idol worship and stressed scriptural purity. Throughout the article, Sikdar emphasises the influence of broader social factors. The shift from forest dwelling to settled monasticism coincided with urbanisation and the patronage of merchants, which provided resources for building temples and monastic establishments. The monastic codes reflected the need to balance ascetic ideals with practical considerations, such as the care of the sick and the regulation of lay-monastic relations. The paper cites archaeological evidence – including inscriptions from Mathurā and Māṇḍū – to corroborate textual accounts. Sikdar argues that the ability of Jain monasticism to adapt to changing circumstances ensured its survival and growth across centuries. By recounting the successive stages of the Jain Sangha’s development, the article illuminates the dynamic interplay between doctrinal continuity and organisational change. The study underscores that the Jain community was not static but evolved through various forms of ascetic practice, institutional structures and social engagement. It provides a valuable framework for understanding the historical resilience of Jainism and its capacity to respond creatively to new challenges.