Evolution of Jaina Sangha (Part III)
By J. C. Sikdar
Summary
In this instalment of a series on the Jain saṅgha, the author examines how the monastic community evolved after Mahāvīra’s nirvāṇa. Mahāvīra left eleven chief disciples; the senior-most, Indrabhūti Gautama, was each entrusted with supervising 250–500 monkshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jain_monasticism#:~:text=Mahavira%20%20had%2011%20,led%20and%20administered%20by%20an. Over time, the saṅgha developed a hierarchical structure led by ācāryas (preceptors) and supported by upādhyāyas (teachers), sthaviras (disciplinarians), pravartakas (preachers) and gaṇis (leaders of smaller groups)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jain_monasticism#:~:text=monks.,5. The essay notes that female leadership positions such as mahattarā and pravartinī are also attestedhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jain_monasticism#:~:text=included%20panyasa%20,5. Leadership was transmitted from Mahāvīra to Indrabhūti and subsequently to Sudharman, Jambu, Prabhava and Śayyambhavahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jain_monasticism#:~:text=The%20leadership%20of%20Jain%20order,6. A united community existed for roughly 160 years after Mahāvīra’s mokṣa, but differences in practice eventually resulted in two main denominations—Digambara and Śvetāmbarahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jain_monasticism#:~:text=Historians%20believe%20that%20a%20united,153%2C%20most%20of%20the%20%C5%9Avet%C4%81mbara. The author discusses how monastic rules recorded in the Kalpa Sūtra and Ācārāṅga Sūtra influenced these divisions. For example, Mahāvīra wore clothing for only a year before going naked and endured extreme austerities; such practices inspired the Digambara ideal of nudity and the Śvetāmbara preference for white robeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jain_monasticism#:~:text=,divine%20powers%2C%20men%2C%20or%20animals. The article also describes how the saṅgha adapted to social and economic changes. As urban centres expanded, monks established monasteries near trade routes and engaged with merchants who supported them materially. The bhattāraka institution, a stationary Digambara monk who managed temple properties and performed rituals, emerged when itinerant monks decreased. The essay highlights the contributions of women ascetics and considers debates about whether women can achieve liberation. Despite sectarian differences, the core values of ahiṃsā, truthfulness and ascetic discipline remained central. By examining organisational structures, doctrinal schisms and practical adaptations, the article paints a nuanced picture of a living monastic tradition that continually reshaped itself in response to internal and external pressures while preserving its spiritual ideals.
Conclusion
The history of the Jain saṅgha illustrates how a religious community can maintain doctrinal continuity while adapting to changing circumstances. From the early cadre of Mahāvīra’s disciples to the complex hierarchy of later centuries, the sangha’s evolution demonstrates resilience and organisational ingenuity. The emergence of sects and institutions like the bhattārakas reflects the community’s attempts to balance ascetic ideals with practical needs. The article concludes that, despite divisions, the Jain saṅgha has remained anchored in non‑violence and self‑discipline and continues to play a vital role in preserving Jain teachings.