Indian Atomism

Summary

In ‘Indian Atomism’ J.C. Sikdar surveys concepts of atomic structure; motion and combination found in various Indian philosophical schools; comparing them with principles of modern physics. The discussion begins with the Jain theory of resistance (pratighāta) of the paramāṇu; the smallest indivisible unit of matter. Jain thinkers classify resistance into three types: vega‑pratighāta; the resistance experienced when a moving atom collides with another; bandha‑pariṇāma‑pratighāta; resistance arising from the attractive and repulsive forces that cause atoms to cohere into aggregates and temporarily lose their individuality; and upakārabhāva‑pratighāta; resistance encountered at the outermost boundary of the universe where motion ceases. Sikdar notes that the Jain view of oscillation and motion of paramāṇu parallels modern atomic physics; which describes atoms vibrating around lattice points and undergoing radical transformations when energy inputs disrupt the orderly arrangement. He cites modern studies of radioactivity—alpha; beta and gamma decay—and elastic collisions of particles to illustrate how conservation of energy and momentum mirrors the Jain concept of vega‑pratighāta. Similar parallels are drawn for bandha‑pariṇāma‑pratighāta; where modern physics recognises forces of attraction and repulsion between atoms that draw them together or push them apart. The article then explores how different Indian schools explain the transformation of atoms. The Sāṃkhya system posits that rajas (energy) acts on primordial mass (bhūtādi) to produce subtle unit‑potentials (tanmātras) associated with sensory qualities. Tanmātras combine to form the five basic elements—ether; air; light; water and earth—each characterised by specific energies. Nyāya‑Vaiśeṣika philosophers describe chemical change through rules stating that the quality of a compound arises from the qualities of its constituent atoms and that heat can produce new qualities either by acting on isolated atoms (pilu‑pāka) or on the whole body of a substance (piṭhāra‑pāka). Sikdar explains that these theories anticipate modern understanding of chemical reactions in which heat supplies energy to break molecular bonds; transform atomic qualities and permit recombination. A substantial portion of the essay is devoted to the combination of atoms. Jain thinkers distinguish between gati‑pariṇāma (change of motion) and agurulaghuguṇa‑pariṇāma (change of weightlessness) and hold that atoms combine into dyads; triads and larger skandhas due to cohesive (snigdhatva) and dry (rūkṣatva) forces. Umasvāti’s Tattvārthādhigama Sūtra lists binary; tertiary and multi‑ary skandhas; and explains that ultimate atoms may unite and separate through combination and dissociation. The Sāṃkhya and Nyāya‑Vaiśeṣika schools similarly discuss dyads (dvyaṇuka); triads and tetrads and debate whether combinations involve isomeric atoms (sajātīya‑saṃyoga) or heterogeneous atoms (vijātīya‑saṃyoga). Sikdar notes that both Sāṃkhya and Jain authors emphasise that combinations occur only when there is a sufficient difference in the degrees of cohesiveness and dryness between atoms; atoms with minimal or equal properties do not combine. These sophisticated rules for atomic combination and transformation show a scientific approach to material phenomena that foreshadows modern atomic theory. The article concludes that despite lacking experimental data; Indian philosophers developed logical theories of matter; energy and chemical change that merit comparison with contemporary physics.