Ludders on the Literary Materials found in Eastern Turkistan

Summary

Dr. Lüders of the University of Berlin delivered six lectures in Calcutta (under the invitation of Calcutta University) on the literary materials from Eastern Turkistan and their impact on Ancient Indian history and culture. The paper provides a comprehensive synopsis of his findings. Historical Background From the 2nd century B.C., Eastern Turkistan served as a crossroads of civilizations, frequented by Indian tribes, Tokharians, Huns, Sakas, Iranians, Tibetans, Turks, and Mongolians. By the 7th century A.D., Hiuen Tsang described it as a Buddhist region with monasteries, where the Sarvāstivāda school prevailed in the north (Yarkand) and Mahāyāna Buddhism in Khotan. Scripts used were derived from Indian models. Religious and Cultural Changes Under the Uigur Turks, a new cultural era began in Khocho (9th century A.D.), marked by Buddhism, Nestorian Christianity, and Manichaeism. Later, Islam triumphed, displacing the earlier religions. Discovery and Excavations The first manuscripts were discovered in 1890 at Qum-Tura and examined by Hoernlé, initiating major archaeological expeditions: • Aurel Stein (British, 1900–1908, 1913) • German Committee for Central Asian Exploration (1902–1907) • Russian and French expeditions (Klementz, Pelliot) These yielded thousands of manuscripts in various scripts and languages. Languages and Texts Among early finds were Brāhmī manuscripts not in Sanskrit. Researchers such as Hoernlé, Leumann, Sieg, Siegling, and F.W.K. Müller discovered new Indo-European and Iranian languages: 1. Tokharian Language (Kuchean) – Two dialects (A and B), Indo-European, Centum group. Found mainly between Kucha and Khocho. Texts were Buddhist, medical, and dramatic works translated from Sanskrit. 2. Khotanese Language – Iranian in origin, containing many Indian words; used for Buddhist and business documents. 3. Saka Language – Identified with “Language II,” probably spoken by the Sakas. 4. Manichaean Texts – Written in dialects related to Pahlavi, Parthian, and Sogdian, the last confirmed by Müller in the Kara-Balgassun inscription. 5. Nestorian Christian Texts – Hymns and pericope fragments in Syriac script, sometimes in a Manichaean-Sogdian hybrid dialect. 6. Buddhist Texts in Sogdian – Including versions of the Vajracchedikā, Suvarṇaprabhāsasūtra, and Vessantarajātaka. Turkish, Tibetan, and Chinese Discoveries • Old Turkish manuscripts (2 centuries older than the Kutadgu Bilig, A.D. 1069) were found in Manichaean, Estrangelo, Uigurian, Brāhmī, and Runic scripts. Some included Indian legends like the Mahābhārata episode of Bhīmasena and Hiḍimbā. • Tibetan manuscripts (mostly religious poems) were studied by Barnett and Francke. • Chinese manuscripts (from Stein’s finds) included the oldest known paper documents (2nd century B.C.), as well as military records on wooden tablets describing soldier life, pay, and communication systems. Indian Manuscripts • Leather and wooden documents from Niya, written in Kharosthi and Prakrit, contained legal, administrative, and private records. • Konow identified one ruler, Maharaja Anmkvaka, with King An-Kuo of Khotan (A.D. 152). He later proposed that the dating in these documents followed the Saka era. • The documents’ wedge-shaped wooden tablets, sealed with cords, indicate official record-keeping by Indian settlers from Gandhara coexisting with Chinese populations. Literary and Canonical Significance The discoveries multiplied the known Sanskrit Buddhist Canonical Literature, including parts of the Saṃyuktāgama, revealing that both Pāli and Sanskrit Canons descended from a common Magadhan dialect source. Sanskrit Poetry and Drama A major outcome was the recovery of lost Sanskrit kāvya and drama, particularly by Aśvaghoṣa, such as: • The Conversion of Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana • An allegorical play featuring Wisdom, Constancy, and Fame • Hymns of Mātr̥ceṭa, known earlier only from Chinese and Tibetan translations Dr. Lüders also identified the Kalpanāmaṇḍitikā of Kumārālata, proving its authorship distinct from Aśvaghoṣa (earlier misattributed in Chinese sources).