Position of Slaves and Serfs as depicted in the Kharosthi Documents from Chinese Turkestan

Summary

This article uses Kharosthi documents from Chinese Turkestan—primarily legal and administrative records inscribed on wooden tablets—to study the status of slaves and serfs in the early centuries CE. Contracts, deeds and correspondence reveal how individuals designated as slaves (dasa) and bonded labourers (kuttumba) were bound to masters through debt, punishment or purchase. Unlike chattel slavery, these bonds often allowed rights to own property, marry and even litigate. The article examines categories such as domestic servants, agricultural serfs and debt‑bondsmen, noting how many slaves were originally free people who lost freedom through legal obligations. Comparisons with Indian texts like the Manusmriti and Arthashastra highlight both similarities and local adaptations: masters could transfer labour, but bonds were not always permanent and manumission through payment or marriage was possible. Women appear as co‑owners of property and parties to contracts, showing that slavery could involve family units. Ethnically diverse names in the documents point to a cosmopolitan society where Indians, Sogdians and Chinese mingled along the Silk Road. By analysing the rights, duties and social origins of these labourers, the article reconstructs a nuanced picture of slavery and serfdom that differs from modern assumptions. It demonstrates that Kharosthi documents provide rich evidence for social history and cross‑cultural influences in Central Asia.