The Arab Conquest of Sind

Summary

The article examines the Arab conquest of Sind (711–712 CE) and seeks to separate historical facts from legend. It notes that the Arabs were already familiar with Sind before Muhammad ibn Qāsim’s expedition; commercial and cultural exchanges existed and Buddhism served as a bridge between India and Arabia. The author cites the Periplus’s reference to a 'commercial understanding' between Arabia and India and points out that Arab mercenaries, such as Muhammad al‑Āfi, were employed in Sind before the conquest. Sources also mention Muslim officers like Wazil serving under King Dahar. The commonly held view that Hajjāj’s expedition was a retaliatory measure against pirates is critiqued. While piracy may have provided a pretext, the author argues that the real motive was religious war and expansion. Earlier expeditions during the caliphates of ʿUmar, ʿUthmān and ʿAlī had failed. Under the caliph ʿAbd al‑Malik, Hajjāj was appointed governor of Iraq, Hind and Sind long before the alleged piracy. Thus, the invasion was part of a broader Islamic policy to expand into India. The article critiques romanticised accounts portraying Muhammad ibn Qāsim as a heroic teenage commander leading an inspired band of soldiers. It highlights the divided and fragmented nature of India in the 8th century, where rulers seldom assisted one another. This lack of political cohesion and internal strife made Sind vulnerable to conquest. The author calls attention to the Chachnāma, the main source for the conquest, noting its biases and layers of anecdote and gossip. Despite its shortcomings, the text provides a substratum of facts that the article seeks to isolate. In reevaluating the conquest, the author argues that Buddhism, local politics and socio‑economic conditions played significant roles. By scrutinising the sources and placing the invasion within the broader context of Islamic expansion, the article moves beyond simplistic explanations and provides a nuanced understanding of the Arab conquest of Sind.